No. XLIII/2 (2021)
Articles

“In Tepito, you have two options: die in the street or go to jail.” Collective trajectory in the study of organized crime in Mexico

“In Tepito, you have two options: die in the street or go to jail.” Collective trajectory in the study of organized crime in Mexico

Piotr Chomczyński
Uniwersytet Łódzki

Published 2023-02-15

Keywords

  • collective trajectory,
  • organized crime,
  • Mexico,
  • criminology,
  • ethnography,
  • DTO

How to Cite

Chomczyński, P. (2023). “In Tepito, you have two options: die in the street or go to jail.” Collective trajectory in the study of organized crime in Mexico: “In Tepito, you have two options: die in the street or go to jail.” Collective trajectory in the study of organized crime in Mexico. Archives of Criminology, (XLIII/2), 7–37. https://doi.org/10.7420/AK2021.16

Abstract

The aim of this article is an attempt to develop an alternative to the previous approaches to criminality, the concept of collective trajectory (CT). It explains the process of recruiting young people into Mexican drug cartels (DTOs) and in the riskiest positions (halcones, dealers, kidnappers and hitmen). Unlike deductive corrections and statistically created and verified criminological theories, collective analysis of trajectories is derived from inductively research and qualitative data collected and analyzed in a culturally different Mexico. The research is based on an ethnographic approach involving direct observation and 92 free interviews conducted among people directly cooperating with the DTO, members of communities at risk of organized crime and people with expert knowledge.

References

  1. Adler P. (1993). Wheeling and Dealing: An Ethnography of an Upper-Level Drug Dealing and Smuggling Community. New York: Columbia University Press.
  2. Agren D. (2020). Mexico Murder Rate Reaches New High as Violence Rages Amid Covid-19 Spread, The Guardian. Dostęp online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/03/mexico-murder-rate-homicide-coronavirus-covid-19 [10.04.2021].
  3. Ahmed A. i Villegas P. (2019). He was One of Mexico’s Deadliest Assassin. Then He Turned on His Cartel, The New York Times. Dostęp online: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/14/world/americas/sicario-mexico-drug-cartels.html [14.12.2020].
  4. Akers R.L. (1998). Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
  5. Astorga L. i Shirk D.A. (2010). Drug Trafficking Organizations and Counter-Drug Strategies in the U.S.-Mexican Context. Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies. Dostęp online: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8j647429 [17.12.2020].
  6. Azaola E. (2015). Diagnóstico de las y los Adolescentes que Cometen Delitos Graves en México [Diagnosis of Adolescents who Commit Serious Crimes in Mexico], UNICEF. Dostęp online: https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/Diagnostico_adolescentes_web.pdf [20.03.2021].
  7. Azaola E. (2017). Informe Especial. Adolescentes: Vulnerabilidad y Violencia [Special report. Adolescents: Vulnerability and Violence]. Mexico: Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos.
  8. Azaola E. (2018). ‘Violent crimes committed by juveniles in Mexico’. W K. Carrington, R. Hogg, J. Scott i J. Sozzo (red.) The Palgrave Handbook on Criminology and the Global South. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, s. 551–567.
  9. Beittel J.S. (2013). ‘Mexico’s drug trafficking organizations: Source and scope of the rising violence’. W F.B. Hall i F.C. Martin (red.) Organized Crime: Aspects and Globalized Elements. UK: Nova Science Publishers, Inc, s. 67–109.
  10. Bennett T.H. i Holloway K. (2004). ‘Gang membership, drugs and crime in the UK’. British Journal of Criminology 44, s. 305–323.
  11. Berger P.L. i Luckmann T. (1991). The Social Construction of Reality. London: Penguin Books.
  12. Biernacki P. i Waldorf D. (1981). ‘Snowball sampling. Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling’. Sociological Methods & Research 10, s. 141–163.
  13. Bilchik S. (1999). 1996 National Youth Gang Survey. Washington: US Department of Justice.
  14. Birkbeck Ch. (2006). ‘Against ethnocentrism: A cross-cultural perspective on criminal justice theories and policies’. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 4, s. 307–323.
  15. Błachut J., Gaberle A. i Krajewski K. (2007). Kryminologia [Criminology]. Gdańsk: Arche.
  16. Blumer H. (1966). ‘Sociological implications of the thought of George Herbert mead’. American Journal of Sociology 71, s. 534–544.
  17. Blumer H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  18. Bonnewitz P. (2002). Pierre Bourdieu. Vie. Oeuvres. Concepts [Pierre Bourdieu. Life. Works. Concepts]. Paris: Ellipses.
  19. Bourdieu P. i Passeron J.C. (1990). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
  20. Bourdieu P. i Wacquant L.J.D. (1992). An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
  21. Bourgois P. (1995). In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in el Barrio. London: Cambridge University Press.
  22. Bourke B. (2014). ‘Positionality: Reflecting on the research process’. Qualitative Report 19(33), s. 1–9.
  23. Breckin E. (2019). ‘Los halcones: The forgotten children in Mexico’s organized crime conflict’. Children, Youth and Environments 29(2), s. 119–131.
  24. Bucerius S.M. (2014). Unwanted: Muslim Immigrants, Dignity, and Drug Dealing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  25. Bucerius S.M. (2017). ‘Being trusted with “inside knowledge”: Ethnographic research with male Muslim drug dealers’. W J. Miller i W.R. Palacios (red.) Qualitative Research in Criminology. Advances in Criminological Theory. T. 20. London: Routledge, s. 135–152.
  26. Bunker R.J. (2013). ‘Introduction: The Mexican cartels – organized crime vs. criminal insurgency’. Trends in Organized Crime 16, s. 129–137.
  27. Burnett J. (2009). Mexican Drug Cartels Recruiting Young Men, Boys, Npr.org. Dostęp online: https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102249839 [24.03.2021].
  28. Buscaglia E. (2015). Lavado de Dinero y Corrupción Política. El Arte de la Delinquencia Organizada Internacional [Money laundering and political corruption. The art of International Organized Crime]. Mexico: Penguin Random House.
  29. Calderón L., Ferreira Octavio R. i Shirk D.A. (2018). Special Report: Justice in Mexico, San Diego: University of San Diego.
  30. Calderoni F., Berlusconi G., Garofalo L., Giommoni L. i Sarno F. (2015). ‘The Italian mafias in the world: A systematic assessment of the mobility of criminal groups’. European Journal of Criminology 13(4), s. 413–433.
  31. Campbell H. (2009). Drug War Zone: Frontline Dispatches from the Streets of El Paso and Juárez. Texas: University of Texas Press.
  32. Carson D.C. i Esbensen F.-A. (2019). ‘Gangs in school: Exploring the experiences of gang- involved youth’. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 17(1), s. 3–23.
  33. Çelik K. i Lüküslü D. (2012). ‘Spotlighting a silent category of young females: The life experiences of “house girls” in Turkey’. Youth & Society 44, s. 28–48.
  34. Charmaz K. i Mitchell R. (2001). ‘Grounded theory in ethnography’. W P. Atkinson, A. Coffey, S. Delamont, J. Lofland i L. Lofland (red.) Handbook of Ethnography. London: Sage, s. 160–175.
  35. Chomczyński P.A. (2017). ‘Dylematy etyczne i metodologiczne w etnograficznych badaniach terenowych w Meksyku’ [Ethical and methodological dilemmas of ethnographical field studies in Mexico]. Roczniki Nauk Społecznych 8(44), s. 143–159.
  36. Chomczyński P.A. (2018). Doing Ethnography in a Hostile Environment: The Case of a Mexico Community. Research Method Cases. London: Sage.
  37. Chomczyński P.A. i Guy R.S. (2019). ‘Keeping a “low profile” in drug dealing: Living between the cartels i the local government in a Mexico City neighborhood’. Journal of Drug Issues 49(2), s. 308–323.
  38. Chomczyński P.A. i Guy R.S. (2021). ‘Our biographies are the same: Juvenile work in Mexican Drug Trafficking Organizations’. British Journal of Criminology, 61(4), s. 946–964.
  39. Chomczyński P.A., Guy R.S. i Cortina Cortés R. (2019). ‘Front business – back business: The illicit economy in a borough of Mexico City’. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 48(6), s. 750–772.
  40. Chomczyński P.A., Guy R.S. i Cortina Cortés R. (w druku). ‘Weed central: Social pathways to cannabis dealing in Mexico City’. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy.
  41. Comunale T., Calderoni F., Marchesi M., Superchi E. i Campedelli G.M. (2020). ‘Systematic review of the social, psychological and economic factors relating to involvement and recruitment into organized crime’. W D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi i F. Calderoni (red.) Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism. Switzerland: Springer, s. 175–204.
  42. Coomber R. i Moyle L. (2018). ‘The Changing shape of street-level heroin and crack supply in England: Commuting, holidaying and cuckooing drug dealers across ‘county lines’’. British Journal of Criminology 58, s. 1323–1342.
  43. Copes H., Beaton B., Ayeni D., Dabney D. i Tewksbury R. (2020). ‘A content analysis of qualitative research published in top criminology and criminal justice journals from 2010 to 2019.’ American Journal of Criminal Justice 45, s. 1060–1079.
  44. Copes H., Tewksbury R. i Sandberg S. (2016). ‘Publishing qualitative research in criminology and criminal justice journals’. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 27(1), s. 121–139.
  45. Corchado A. (2010). Point Person: Our Q & A with Edgardo Buscaglia, Dallasnews.com. Dostęp online: https://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/commentary/2010/04/09/point-person-our-qanda-with-edgardo-buscaglia/ [16.03.2021].
  46. Crewe B. (2018). ‘Process and insight in prison ethnography’. W S.K. Rice i M.D. Maltz (red.) Doing Ethnography in Criminology. Springer, s. 83–89.
  47. Crisis Group (2020). Mexico’s Everyday War: Guerrero in the Trials of Peace, Crisisgroup.org. Dostęp online: https://www.crisisgroup.org/latin-americacaribbean/mexico/80-mexicos-everyday-war-guerrero-i-trials-peace [20.03.2021].
  48. Curtis R. (2010). ‘Getting good data from people that do bad things: Effective methods and techniques for conducting research with hard-to-reach and hidden populations’. W W. Bernasco (red.) Offenders on Offending: Learning about Crime from Criminals. Cullompton: Willan, s. 141–158.
  49. Dalhouse M. i Frideres J. (1996). ‘Intergenerational congruency, the role of the family in political attitudes of youth’. Journal of Family Issues 17, s. 227–248.
  50. Decker S. i Van Winkle B. (1996). Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence. London: Cambridge University Press.
  51. Densley J. (2012). ‘Street gang recruitment: Signaling, screening, and selection’. Social Problems 59, s. 301–321.
  52. Denzin N.K. (1978). The Research Act. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  53. Drummond H., Dizgun J. i Keeling D. (2019). ‘Cross-group investigations: Youth gangs in Medellin, Colombia’. Youth & Society 51, s. 73–100.
  54. Dun M. van (2014). ‘Exploring narco-sovereignty/violence: Analysing illegal networks, crime, violence, and legitimation in a peruvian cocaine enclave (2003–2007)’. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 43, s. 395–418.
  55. Ernst F. (2018). La Muerte del Sicario [The Death of the Hitman], Nexos.com. Dostęp online: https://www.nexos.com.mx/?p=39932 [14.03.2021].
  56. Ernst F. (2019). The Life and Death of a Mexican Hitman, Insightcrime.org. Dostęp online: https://www.insightcrime.org/news/analysis/the-life-and-death-of-amexican-hitman/ [18.02.2021].
  57. Estrada J., Gilreath T., Astor R. i Benbenishty R. (2016). ‘A statewide study of gang membership in California secondary schools’. Youth & Society 48, s. 720–736.
  58. Fagerhaugh S.Y. i Strauss A.L. (1977). Politics of Pain Management: Staff-Patient Interaction. New York: Addison-Wesley.
  59. Fielding N. (2004). ‘Working in hostile environments’. W C. Seale, D. Silverman, J.F. Gubrium i G. Gobo (red.) Qualitative Research Practice. London: Sage, s. 228–260.
  60. Fleetwood J. (2015). ‘In search for respectability. Narrative practice in a women’s prison in Quito, Ecuador’. W L. Presser i S. Sandberg (red.) Narrative Criminology. New York: New York University Press, s. 42–68.
  61. Franko K. (2017). ‘Criminology, punishment, and the state in globalized society’. W A. Liebling, S. Maruna i L. McAra (red.) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 353–372.
  62. Fraser A. i Hagedorn J. (2018). ‘Gangs and the global sociological imagination’. Theoretical Criminology 22, s. 42–62.
  63. Garfinkel H. (1967). Studies in Ethnometodology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
  64. Giordano P.G. (2020). ‘Continuing education: Toward a life-course perspective on social learning’. Criminology 58, s. 199–225.
  65. Glaser B.G. i Strauss A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine Publishing.
  66. Gobo G. i Molle A. (2017). Doing Ethnography. London: Sage.
  67. Gomez C. i Taylor K. (2018). ‘Cultural differences in conflict resolution strategies: A US–Mexico comparison’. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management 11, s. 33–51.
  68. Grillo I. (2013). ‘Mexican cartels: A century of defying U.S. drug policy’. Brown Journal of World Affairs 20, s. 253–265.
  69. Grillo I. (2018). Where the Legend of El Chapo Was Born, Time.com. Dostęp online: https://time.com/magazine/south-pacific/5272479/may-10th-2018-vol-191-no-19-u-s/ [12.07.2021].
  70. Groves W.B. i Frank N. (1993). ‘Punishment, privilege, and structured choice’. W W.B. Groves, G.R. Newman, M.J. Lynch i D.H. Galaty (red.) Discovering Criminology: From W. Byron Groves. New York: Harrow and Heston, s. 261–273.
  71. Guerra E. (2020). ‘Forma y funcion de los rituals criminals en la operacion de los caballeros templarios’ [Form and function of criminal rituals in the operation of the Knights Templar]. W J. Treveno Rengel i L.H. Atuesta Becerra (red.) La Muerte es un Negocio. Miradas Cercanas a la Violencia Criminal en América Latina [Death is a Business. Close Looks at Criminal Violence in Latin America]. Ciudad de México: Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, s. 111–137.
  72. Guevara A.Y. (2013). ‘Propaganda in Mexico’s drug war’. Journal of Strategic Security 6(3), s. 131–151.
  73. Hagedorn J. (1994). ‘Homeboys, dope fiends, legits, and new jacks’. Criminology 32, s. 197–219.
  74. Hallenbeck J.L. (2003). Palliative Care Perspectives. London: Oxford University Press.
  75. Hammersley M. i Atkinson P. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in Practice. London, New York: Routledge.
  76. Harrington A. (2000). ‘Alfred Schütz and the ‘objectifying attitude’. Sociology 34, s. 727–740.
  77. Hazen J. i Rodgers D. (2014). Global Gangs: Street Violence Across the World. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  78. Hobbs D. (2017). ‘Criminal practice: Fieldwork and improvisation in difficult circumstances’. W J. Miller i W.R. Palacios (red.) Qualitative Research in Criminology. Advances in Criminological Theory. T. 20. London: Routledge, s. 15–33.
  79. Hofstede G., Hofstede G.J. i Minkov M. (2007). Kultury i organizacje [Cultures and Organizations]. Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne.
  80. Holmes C. i Soto L. (2019). Drug Cartels Recruiting Valley Children as Young as 11 for Smuggling, Officials Warn, Abc15.com. Dostęp online: https://www.abc15.com/news/local-news/investigations/drug-cartels-recruiting-valley-childrenas-young-as-11-for-smuggling-officials-warn [12.07.2021].
  81. Holmes D.R. i Marcus G.E. (2008). ‘Refunctioning ethnography: The challenge of an anthropology of the contemporary’. W N.K. Denzin i Y.S. Lincoln (red.) The Landscape of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage, s. 519–537.
  82. Hoonaard W. van den (2003). ‘Is anonymity an artifact in ethnographic research?’. Journal of Academic Ethics 1(2), s. 141–151.
  83. Iraszczyk W. (2017). ‘Młode kobiety w gangach: między wiktymizacją a maskulinizacją’ [Young women in gangs: Between victimization and masculinization]. Studia Edukacyjne 44, s. 231–246.
  84. Klein M.W. i Maxson C.L. (2006). Street Gang Patterns and Policies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  85. Konecki K.T. (2017). ‘Qualitative sociology’. W K.O. Korgen (red.) The Cambridge Handbook of Sociology. T. 1. London: Cambridge University Press, s. 143–152.
  86. Konecki K.T. i Chomczyński P.A. (2012). Słownik socjologii jakościowej. Warszawa: Difin.
  87. Konopásek Z. (2008). ‘Making thinking visible with Atlas.ti: Computer assisted qualitative analysis as textual practices’. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 9(2), Art. 12. Dostęp online: https://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/420/910 [12.07.2021].
  88. Kulik L. (2002). ‘The impact of social background on gender-role ideology’. Journal of Family Issues 23, s. 53–73.
  89. Lahey B.B., Gordon R.A., Loeber R., Stouthamer-Loeber M. i Farrington D.P. (1999). ‘Boys who join gangs: A prospective study of predictors of first gang entry’. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 27, s. 261–276.
  90. Lampe K. von (2016). Organized Crime: Analyzing Illegal Activities, Criminal Structures, and Extra-Legal Governance. Los Angeles: Sage.
  91. Lianos M. i Douglas M. (2000). ‘Dangerization and the end of deviance. The institutional environment’. British Journal of Criminology 40, s. 261–278.
  92. Macit R. (2018). ‘Becoming a drug dealer in Turkey’. Journal of Drug Issues 48, s. 106–117.
  93. Magaloni B., Robles G., Matanock A.M., Diaz-Cayeros A. i Romero V. (2020). ‘Living in fear: The dynamics of extortion in Mexico’s drug war’. Comparative Political Studies 53(7), s. 1124–1174.
  94. Maldonado Aranda S. (2013). ‘Stories of drug trafficking in rural Mexico: Territories, drugs and cartels in Michoacán’. Revista Europea de Estudios Latioamericanos y del Caribe 94, s. 43–66.
  95. Maldonado Aranda S. (2018). ‘La construccion del crimen organizado en Michoacán’ [The construction of organized crime in Michoacán]. W C.A. Flores Pérez (red.) La Crisis de Seguridad y Violencia en México [The Security Crisis and Violence in Mexico]. Mexico: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, s. 142–166.
  96. Matuchniak-Krasuska A. (2015). ‘Koncepcja habitusu u Pierre’a Bourdieu’ [Habitus in Pierre Bourdieu]. HYBRIS 31, s. 77–111.
  97. Matza D. (1964). Delinquency and Drift. New York: Wiley.
  98. Mieczkowski T. (1994). ‘The experiences of women who sell crack: Some descriptive data from the Detroit Crack Ethnography Project’. Journal of Drug Issues 24, s. 277–248.
  99. Miller J. i Palacios W.R. (red.) (2017). Qualitative Research in Criminology. Advances in Criminological Theory. T. 20. London: Routledge.
  100. Moreno H.C. i Urteaga M. (red.) (2019). Juventud, Trabajo y Narcotrafico [Youth, Work and Drug Trafficking]. Puebla: Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.
  101. Morris E.K. (2013). Think Again: Mexican Drug Cartels, Foreignpolicy.com. Dostęp online: https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/12/04/think-again-mexican-drugcartels/ [10.04.2021].
  102. Murphy S., Waldorf D. i Reinarman C. (1990). ‘Drifting into dealing: Becoming a cocaine seller’. Qualitative Sociology 13, s. 321–343.
  103. Nelken D. (2009). ‘Comparative criminal justice: Beyond ethnocentrism and relativism’. European Journal of Criminology 6, s. 291–311.
  104. Nelken D. (2017). ‘Rethinking comparative criminal justice’. W A. Liebling, S. Maruna i L. McAra (red.). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 416–437.
  105. Niedbalski J. (2014). ‘Zastosowanie oprogramowania Atlas.ti i NVivo w realizacji badan’. opartych na metodologii teorii ugruntowanej’ [The application of Atlas.ti and NVivo software in conducting researches based on grounded theory methodology]. Przegląd Socjologii Jakościowej 10(2), s. 60–80.
  106. Noaks L. i Wincup E. (2004). Criminological Research: Understanding Qualitative Methods. London: Sage.
  107. Osorno D.E. (2014). El Cártel de Sinaloa. Una Historia del Uso Político del Narco [The Sinaloa Cartel. A History of the Political Use of Narco]. Mexico: Penguin Random House.
  108. Pękala K., Kacprzak A., Chomczyński P., Ratajczak J., Marczak M., Kozłowski R., Timler D., Pękala-Wojciechowska A. i Rasmus P. (2021b). ‘Age-graded transitions and turning points in Polish offenders’ criminal careers from the standpoint of life course theory’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(11), s. 1–11.
  109. Pękala K., Kacprzak A., Pękala-Wojciechowska A., Chomczyński P., Olszewski M., Marczak M., Kozłowski R., Timler D., Zakonnik Ł., Sienkiewicz K., Kozłowska E. i Rasmus P. (2021a). ‘Risk factors of early adolescence in the criminal career of Polish offenders in the light of life course theory’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(12), s. 1–12.
  110. Phillips C. i Bowling B. (2017). ‘Ethnicities, racism, crime, and criminal justice’. W A. Liebling, S. Maruna i L. McAra (red.) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 190–212.
  111. Phillips T. (2019). Hugs and Bullets: The Battle to Pacify Mexico, The Gruardian. Dostęp online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/06/mexicodrug-wars-thousands-disappear-missing [22.02.2021].
  112. Prus R. i Grills S. (2003). The Deviant Mystique: Involvements, Realities, and Regulation. Westport: Praeger.
  113. Restrepo A.L. i Guizado A.C. (2003). ‘From smugglers to warlords: Twentieth Century Colombian drug traffickers’. Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 28(55–56), s. 249–275.
  114. Riemann G. i Schütze F. (1991). ‘“Trajectory” as a basic theoretical concept for analyzing suffering and disorderly social processes’. W D.R. Maines (red.) Social Organization and Social Process: Essays in Honor of Anselm Strauss. New York: De Gruyter, s. 333–357.
  115. Rios Contreras V. (2012). How Government Structure Encourages Criminal Violence: The Causes of Mexico’s Drug War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University (rozprawa doktorska).
  116. Rios Contreras V. (2013). ‘Why did Mexico become so violent? A self-reinforcing violent equilibrium caused by competition and enforcement’. Trends in Organized Crime 16(2), s. 138–155.
  117. Rivoal I. i Salazar N.B. (2013). ‘Contemporary ethnographic practice and the value of serendipity’. Social Anthropology 21, s. 178–185.
  118. Rossi G (reż.) (2010). Pokój 164. Spowiedź mordercy. Dostęp online: https://www.cda.pl/video/23273406 [17.01.2021].
  119. Sampson R.J. i Laub J. (1992). ‘Crime and deviance in the life course’. Annual Review of Sociology 18, s. 63–84.
  120. Sampson R.J. i Laub J. (1993). Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  121. Sánchez C.A.M. i Aguilar A.E.T. (2017). ‘Los menores de edad en la delicuencia organizada en México’ [Minors in organized crime in Mexico]. Letras Jurídicas 15(15), s. 1–41.
  122. Sandberg S. i Fleetwood J. (2016). ‘Street talk and Bourdieusian criminology: Bringing narrative to field theory’. Criminology & Criminal Justice 17(4), s. 365–381.
  123. Saunders B., Kitzinger J. i Kitzinger C. (2014). ‘Anonymising interview data: Challenges and compromise in practice’. Qualitative Research 15, s. 616–632.
  124. Schütz A. (1951). ‘Making music together: A study in social relationship’. Social Research 18, s. 76–97.
  125. Schütz A. (1953). ‘Common sense and scientific interpretation of human action’. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 14, s. 1–38.
  126. Scott K. (1994). Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member. New York: Penguin.
  127. Seddon T. (2006). ‘Drugs crime and social exclusion: Social context and social theory in British drugs crime research’. British Journal of Criminology 46, s. 680–703.
  128. Silverman D. (2011). Interpreting Qualitative Data. London: Sage.
  129. Strauss A.L. (1995). ‘Identity, biography, history, and symbolic representations’. Social Psychology Quarterly 58, s. 4–12.
  130. Strauss A.L. i Corbin J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. New York: Sage.
  131. Sullivan H.S. (1953). The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
  132. Sveinung S. (2008). ‘Street capital: Ethnicity and violence on the streets of Oslo’. Theoretical Criminology 12(2), s. 153–171.
  133. Thornberry T., Krohn M., Lizotte A. i Chard-Wierschem D. (1993). ‘The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior’. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30, s. 55–87.
  134. Thornberry T., Krohn M., Lizotte A. i Chard-Wierschem D. (2003). Gang Membership and Delinquency: Gangs in Developmental Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  135. Thrasher F. (1927). The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
  136. Tönnies F. (2001). Community and Civil Society. London: Cambridge University Press.
  137. Transparency International (2020). Corruption Perceptions Index, Transparency.org. Dostęp online: https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/mex# [22.03.2021].
  138. Treadwell J. (2020). Criminological Ethnography. London: Sage.
  139. Uggen Ch. (2000). ‘Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism’. American Sociological Review 65(4), s. 529–546.
  140. Ulmer J. (2000). ‘Commitment, deviance, and social control’. The Sociological Quarterly 41(3), s. 315–336.
  141. Valdez Cárdenas J. (2015). Huérfanos del Narco [Orphans of the Narco]. México: Penguin Random House.
  142. Varese F., Lonsky J. i Podvysotskiy Y. (2021). ‘The resilience of the Russian mafia: An empirical study’. The British Journal of Criminology 61(1), s. 143–166.
  143. Venkatesh S.A. (2008). Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Streets. New York: Penguin Press.
  144. Warr M. (2002). Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct. London: Cambridge University Press.
  145. Watt P. i Zapeda R. (2012). Drug War Mexico: Politics, Neoliberalism and Violence in the New Narcoeconomy. London, New York: Zed Books Ltd.
  146. Weaver B. i Fraser A. (2021). ‘The social dynamics of group offending’. Theoretical Criminology 00(0), s. 1–21.
  147. Wilkinson T. i Ellingwood K. (2010). ‘Cartels thrive despite calderón’s crackdown: Drug gangs have expanded their power and reach in both Mexico and the United States’. Los Angeles Times, August 8.
  148. Wilson J.J. (2000). 1998 National Youth Gang Survey. Washington: US Department of Justice.
  149. Wilson T.P. (1970). ‘Normative and interpretive paradigms in sociology’. W J.D. Douglas (red.) Everyday Life: Reconstruction of Social Knowledge. New York: Routledge, s. 57–70.