Make a Submission
ONLINE FIRST
Artykuły

Litigating for Biodiversity:Comparative Insights from Iran and the European Union

PDF
  • Elnaz Nahavandi
Elnaz Nahavandi
Scuola Universitaria Superiore IUSS Pavia

Published 2026-06-10

Keywords

  • biodiversity liability,
  • legal basis,
  • Administrative Court of Justice,
  • fault-based liability,
  • precautionary principle
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

How to Cite

Litigating for Biodiversity:Comparative Insights from Iran and the European Union: Postępowania sądowe na rzecz bioróżnorodności: porównawcze spojrzenie z perspektywy Iranu i Unii Europejskiej. (2026). Studia Prawnicze The Legal Studies, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.37232/

Abstract

This essay explores the potential for biodiversity litigation in Iran, where biodiversity loss has become a serious concern. Article 50 of the Iranian Constitution emphasises the need for environmental protection, yet most environmental cases are adjudicated by the Administrative Court of Justice, ignoring the precautionary principle. The paper examines the legal foundation for such claims under Article 10 of the Court’s legislation and compares Iran’s approach with the more efficient legal framework of the European Union. The objective is to enhance the efficacy of biodiversity litigation in Iran.

PDF

References

  1. Asadi Z., Khorsandiyan M., A Comparative Study of the Principle of Precaution in Modern Law and Iranian and Islamic Law, “Comparative Studies on Islamic and Western Law” 2022, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 1–36.
  2. Babaei I., The Status of Differentiating Direct Harm and Indirect Harm in Civil Liability Law, “Legal Research” 2016, vol. 19, no. 76, p. 83–109.
  3. Biermann F., “Common Concern of Humankind”: The Emergence of a New Concept of International Environmental Law, “Archiv des Völkerrechts” 1996, vol. 34, no. 4, p. 426–481.
  4. Bleeker A., Does the Polluter Pay? The Polluter-pays Principle in the Case Law of the European Court of Justice, “European Energy and Environmental Law Review” 2009, vol. 18, no. 6, p. 289–306, https://doi.org/10.54648/eelr2009024.
  5. Bouzari S., Compensation for Damage to the Environment by Emphasizing the Crisis of Urmia Lake and Invoking the Rule of No Harm and Loss and Causation, “Bioethics Journal” 2021, vol. 11, no. 36, p. 1–16, https://doi.org/10.22037/bioeth.v11136.34906.
  6. Burger M., Wentz J., Horton R., The Law and Science of Climate Change Attribution, “Columbia Journal of Environmental Law” 2020, vol. 45, no. 1, p. 57–240, https://doi.org/10.7916/cjel.v45i1.4730.
  7. Casetta E., Silva J.M. da, Vecchi D., From Assessing to Conserving Biodiversity: Conceptual and Practical Challenges, Springer, Cham 2019.
  8. Ceballos G., Ehrlich P.R., Dirzo R., Biological Annihilation Via the Ongoing Sixth Mass Extinction Signaled by Vertebrate Population Losses and Declines, “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences” 2017, vol. 114, no. 30, p. 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704949114.
  9. Civil Liability Law of 1940 of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
  10. Danthinne A., Eliantonio M., Peeters M., Justifying a Presumed Standing for Environmental NGOs: A Legal Assessment of Article 9(3) of the Aarhus Convention, “Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law” 2022, vol. 31, no. 3, p. 411–420, https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12450.
  11. Emadodin I., Reinsch T., Taube F., Drought and Desertification in Iran, “Hydrology” 2019, vol. 6, no. 3, https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology6030066.
  12. Epstein Y., Adversarial Legalism and Biodiversity Protection in the United States and the European Union, “Transnational Environmental Law” 2018, vol. 7, no. 3, p. 491–513, https://doi.org/10.1017/s2047102518000109.
  13. Faure M. G., The Environmental Crime Directive 2008/99/EC, “Revue Européenne de Droit de la Consommation” 2011, no. 1, p. 193–208.
  14. Ghodsi S.E., Goldouzian H., Explanation of the Crime of Environmental Pollution: With Reflection on Article 688 of the Islamic Penal Code, “Rah-e Vekalat” 2013, vol. 5, no. 9, p. 185–195.
  15. Gholampour Arbastan H., Rezaei M., Examining the 7th Development Plan Bill: Environment and Presenting Proposed Rulings (19072), “Monthly Expert Reports of Islamic Council Research Center” 2023, vol. 31, no. 4, p. 1–37.
  16. Gohari A., Beijani M., Strict Liability in Environmental Degradation from a Jurisprudential Perspective, “Private Law Studies” 2011, vol. 38, no. 2, p. 113–146.
  17. Hemmati M., Filing a Lawsuit for Environmental Damage Compensation in the Iranian Legal System, “Judicial Legal Perspectives Quarterly” 2023, vol. 23, no. 81, p. 221–253.
  18. Iran Inputs on Preamble, Objectives, Principles and Scope, https://resolutions.unep.org/incres/uploads/cg1-_sub_cg1.1-_iran_inputs_on_preamble_objectives_principles_and_scope_0.pdf [access: 1.06.2025].
  19. Jones C.A., Pendergrass J., Broderick J., Phelps J., Tropical Conservation and Liability for Environmental Harm, “Environmental Law Reporter” 2015, vol. 45, p. 11032–11050.
  20. Jowkar H., Ostrowski S., Tahbaz M., Zahler P., The Conservation of Biodiversity in Iran: Threats, Challenges and Hopes, “Iranian Studies” 2016, vol. 49, no. 6, p. 1065–1077, https://doi.org/10.1080/00210862.2016.1241602.
  21. Judgment of the Administrative Justice Court of Iran of 15 July 2001, Case No. 129–1380.4.24, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/102305 [access: 14.05.2025].
  22. Judgment of the Administrative Justice Court of Iran of 20 September 2014, Case No. 856–1393.6.29. https://qavanin.ir/Law/TreeText/?IDS=12161583974501531390 [access: 22.04.2025].
  23. Judgment of the CJ of 21 April 2011, C-240/09, Lesoochranárske zoskupenie VLK v Ministerstvo životného prostredia Slovenskej republiky, EU:C:2011:124.
  24. Judgment of the CJ of 7 September 2004, C-127/02, Landelijke Vereniging tot Behoud van de Waddenzee and Nederlandse Vereniging tot Bescherming van Vogels v. Staatssecretaris van Landbouw, Natuurbeheer en Visserij (Waddenzee), EU:C:2004:482.
  25. Karimi Khanjari F., Sajadi Kia M., Civil Liability for Environmental Damage in Iranian Law and International Instruments, “Environment and Interdisciplinary Development” 2021, vol. 6, no. 73, p. 19–34.
  26. Kashani J., The Competent Forum for Hearing Responsibility Cases Against the State, “Judicial Law Views Quarterly” 2016, vol. 21, no. 73, p. 125–162.
  27. Katouzian N., Ansari M., Liability Arising from Environmental Damages, “Private Law Studies” 2008, vol. 38, no. 2, p. 285–313.
  28. Koziell I., Diversity Not Adversity: Sustaining Livelihoods with Biodiversity, International Institute for Environment and Development, London 2001.
  29. Pallemaerts M. (ed.), The Aarhus Convention at Ten: Interactions and Tensions Between Conventional International Law and EU Environmental Law, Europa Law Publishing, Groningen 2011.
  30. Pereira R., A Critical Evaluation of the New EU Environmental Crime Directive 2024/1203, “eucrim – European Law Forum: Prevention, Investigation, Prosecution” 2024, p. 158–163.
  31. Permanent Provisions Law on the National Development Programs, ratified by the Islamic Consultative Assembly in 19 February 2017, Official Gazette No. 96683/32.
  32. Rajabi A., Environmental Damage Litigation: Stray Between Public and Private Law, https://clicl.ut.ac.ir/article_530.html [access: 14.02.2025].
  33. Richardson M.L., Wilson B.A., Aiuto D.A., Crosby J.E., Alonso A., Dallmeier F., Golinski G.K., A Review of the Impact of Pipelines and Power Lines on Biodiversity and Strategies for Mitigation, “Biodiversity and Conservation” 2017, vol. 26, no. 8, p. 1801–1815, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1341-9.
  34. Riyazi M.H., Faqih Habibi M., Pournouri M., Mansour M., A Study of Intergenerational Rights and Obligations to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals: With Emphasis on Article 50 of the Iranian Constitution, “Environmental Science and Technology” 2023, vol. 25, no. 2, p. 41–53.
  35. Rodríguez-Garavito C., Boyd D.R., A Rights Turn in Biodiversity Litigation? “Transnational Environmental Law” 2023, vol. 12, no. 3, p. 498–536, https://doi.org/10.1017/s2047102523000171.
  36. Selajgeh B., Bahmanpour H., Environmental Literacy Educational Package for Educators and Facilitators: Biodiversity, Zarnevesht Publishing, Tehran 2020.
  37. Shariat Bagheri M.J., Kord Firoozjayi M.R., Substantive Proceedings in the Administrative Justice Court, “Judicial Legal Perspectives Quarterly” 2023, vol. 26, no. 96, p. 113–132.
  38. Wendling Z.A., Emerson J.W., Esty D.C., Levy M.A., Sherbinin A. de, 2018 Environmental Performance Index: Iran Country Profile, Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network, New Haven 2018, https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.34995.12328