Opublikowane
2024-09-30
Słowa kluczowe
- migration,
- asylum,
- sea,
- crime,
- defencelessness,
- law,
- moral,
- migracja,
- azyl,
- morze,
- przestępstwo,
- bezbronność,
- prawo,
- moralność
...Więcej
Less
Abstrakt
The lack of safe entryways into Europe generates alternative maritime routes from Africa to the European continent. In recent years, there has been an increase in these arrivals and in the detention of individuals accused of migrant smuggling on the Central Mediterranean route to Italy and the North-west African (Atlantic) route to the Canary Islands upon their arrival by sea. Both the UNODC and various NGOs have suggested in recent reports that the punitive response to boat captains may have less to do with tackling the crime of human smuggling than it may initially appear. During fieldwork conducted as part of the JEPRAN project, a surprising number of youths accused of human smuggling were identified in a prison in Almería, Spain, having arrived via the Western Mediterranean route. This serendipitous finding allows for reflection within this article on the crime of human smuggling across different routes into Europe based on interviews with youths accused of this crime and imprisoned in the south of Spain.
Brak bezpiecznych dróg wejścia do Europy przyczynia się do powstawania alternatywnych szlaków morskich z Afryki na kontynent europejski. W ostatnich latach odnotowano wzrost liczby przypadków korzystania z tych szlaków i przypadków zatrzymań osób oskarżanych o przemyt migrantów na szlaku środkowo-śródziemnomorskim do Włoch i szlaku północno-zachodnioafrykańskim (atlantyckim) na Wyspy Kanaryjskie zaraz po ich przybyciu drogą morską. Zarówno UNODC, jak i różne organizacje pozarządowe zasugerowały w ostatnich raportach, że reakcja karna wobec kapitanów łodzi może mieć mniej wspólnego z walką z przestępstwem przemytu ludzi, niż mogłoby się początkowo wydawać. Podczas badań terenowych przeprowadzonych w ramach projektu JEPRAN w więzieniu w Almerii w Hiszpanii zidentyfikowano zaskakującą liczbę młodych ludzi oskarżonych o przemyt osób, przybyłych szlakiem zachodniośródziemnomorskim. To przypadkowe odkrycie pozwoliło na podjętą w niniejszym artykule refleksję na temat przestępstwa przemytu osób różnymi szlakami do Europy w oparciu o wywiady z młodymi ludźmi oskarżonymi o to przestępstwo i osadzonymi w więzieniu na południu Hiszpanii.
Bibliografia
- Achilli L. (2018). ʻThe ʻgoodʼ smuggler: The ethics and morals of human smuggling among Syrians.ʼ The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 676(1), pp. 77–96. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/51946
- Aloyo E. and Cusumano E. (2018). ʻMorally evaluating human smuggling: The case of migration to Europe.ʼ Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 24(2), pp. 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2018.1525118
- APDHA (2023). Derechos Humanos en la Frontera Sur 2023 [Human Rights in the Southern Border], Apdha.org. Available online: https://www.apdha.org/frontera-sur-2023/ [08.07.2024].
- Aradau C. (2004). ʻThe perverse politics of four-letter words: Risk and pity in the securitisation of human trafficking.ʼ Millennium 33(2), pp. 251–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298040330020101
- Arci Porco Rosso and Alarm Phone (2021). From the Sea to Prison. The Criminalisation of Migration in the Report by Arci Porco Rosso and Alarm Phone, Borderlinesicilia.it. Available online: https://www.borderlinesicilia.it/en/news-en/from-the-sea-to-prison-the-criminalisation-of-migration-in-the-report-by-arci-porco-rosso-and-alarm-phone/ [08.07.2024].
- Arencibia D. (2024). Testigos protegidos y teléfonos móviles [Protected witnesses and cell phones], Dropbox.com. Available online: https://ocspi.wordpress.com/blog-ocspi/ [08.07.2024].
- Baird T. (2013). Theoretical Approaches to Human Smuggling. Copenhagen: DIIS Working Paper.
- Barbero I. (2021). ʻLos Centros de Atención Temporal de Extranjeros como nuevo modelo de gestión migratorio: Situación actual, (des)regulación jurídica y mecanismos de control de derechos y garantíasʼ [The temporary care centers for foreigners as a new model of migration management: Current situation, legal (dis)regulation and control mechanisms of rights and guarantees]. Derechos y Libertades 45, pp. 267–302. https://doi.org/10.20318/dyl.2021.6108
- Barbero I. (2023). ʻWhen return orders are more than just a deportation receipt: Transit migration and socio-legal meanings of administrative documents.ʼ Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies 21(1), pp. 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2021.2017098
- Boza Martínez D. and Pérez Medina D. (2019). ʻNew migrant detention strategies in Spain: Short-term assistance centres and internment centres for foreign nationals. Paix et Securite Internationales 7, pp. 261–277. https://doi.org/10.25267/Paix_secur_int.2019.i7.08
- Carvalho J. (2023). ʻComunicando la inmigración: ¿Qué nos dicen las noticias?ʼ [Communicating immigration: What does the news tell us?]. In E. García-España and M. Contreras Román (eds.) Inmigración y control social: Desafíos de la moderna Criminología [Immigration and social control: Challenges of modern criminology]. Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, pp. 183–202.
- Coen M. (ed.) (2011). Human Trafficking, Smuggling and Illegal Immigration: International Management by Criminal Organizations. Vol. 79. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
- Fernández-Bessa C. and Brandáriz-García J.A. (2016). ʻTransformaciones de la penalidad migratoria en el contexto de la crisis económica: El giro gerencial del dispositivo de deportaciónʼ [Transformations of the migratory penalty in the context of the economic crisis: The managerial turn of the deportation device]. Indret: Revista Para El Análisis Del Derecho 4, pp. 1–25. https://www.raco.cat/index.php/InDret/article/view/314500/404653
- FRA (2023). June 2023 Update – Search and Rescue Operations in the Mediterranean and Fundamental Rights, Fra.europa.eu. Available online: https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2023/2023-update-ngo-ships-sar-activities [08.07.2024].
- Franko Aas K. and Gundhus H.O.I. (2015). ʻPolicing humanitarian borderlands: Frontex, human rights and the precariousness of life.ʼ The British Journal of Criminology 55(1), pp. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azu086
- Gómez I. (2023). Cruzada policial contra los pateristas: 642 detenidos en la última década en Almería [Police crusade against smugglers: 642 arrested in the last decade in Almeria], Diariodealmeria.es. Available online: https://www.diariodealmeria.es/almeria/Cruzada-pateristas-detenidos-Almeria-inmigracion-pateras_0_1834017082.html
- Hidalgo J. (2016). ʻThe ethics of people smuggling.ʼ Journal of Global Ethics 12(3), pp. 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449626.2016.1245676
- Maher S. (2018). ʻOut of West Africa: Human smuggling as a social enterprise.ʼ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 676(1), pp. 36–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217743935
- Mallia P. (2010). Migrant Smuggling by Sea: Combating a Current Threat to Maritime Security through the Creation of a Cooperative Framework. Leiden, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
- Migreurop (2024). Muertos y desaparecidos en la indiferencia [Dead and missing in the indifference], Migreurop.org. Available online: https://migreurop.org/article3263.html?lang_article=es&lang_nav=es [08.07.2024].
- Moya-Malapeira D. (2002). ʻLa devolución de extranjeros en el ordenamiento jurídico españolʼ [The return of foreigners in the Spanish legal system]. Revista Vasca de Administración Pública 62, pp. 189–262.
- Müller J.F. (2018). ʻThe ethics of commercial human smuggling.ʼ European Journal of Political Theory 20(1), pp. 138–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474885118754468
- Neske M. and Doomernik J. (2006). ‘Comparing notes: Perspectives on human smuggling in Austria, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands.’ International Migration 44(4), pp. 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00379.x
- OCSPI (n.d.). OCSPI Blog, Ocspi.wordpress.com. Available online: https://ocspi.wordpress.com/blog-ocspi/ [08.07.2024].
- Pallister-Wilkins P. (2015). ʻThe humanitarian politics of European border policing: Frontex and border police in Evros.ʼ International Political Sociology 9(1), pp. 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/ips.12076
- Patane F., Bolhuis M., van Wijk J., and Kreiensiek H. (2020). ʻAsylum-seekers prosecuted for human smuggling: A case study of Scafisti in Italy.ʼ Refugee Survey Quarterly 39(2), pp. 123–152. https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdaa008
- Rodríguez-Candela J.L. and García-España E. (1996). ʻLa devolución del extranjeroʼ [The return of the foreigner]. La Ley: Revista Jurídica Española de Doctrina, Jurisprudencia y Bibliografía 5, pp. 1338–1350.
- Salt J. (2000). ʻTrafficking and human smuggling: A European perspectiveʼ. International Migration 38(3), pp. 31–56.
- Spanish Ombudsman (2012). ¿Menores o Adultos? Procedimientos para la determinación de la edad [Minors or Adults? Age determination procedures], Defensordelpueblo.es. Available online: https://www.defensordelpueblo.es/informe-monografico/menores-o-adultos-procedimientos-para-la-determinacion-de-la-edad-enero-2012/# [01.08.2024].
- Spanish Ombudsman (2021). Estudio sobre La migración en Canarias [Study on migration in the Canary Islands 2021], Defensordelpueblo.es. Available online: https://www.defensordelpueblo.es/informe-monografico/la-migracion-canarias/ [08.07.2024].
- Triandafyllidou A. and Maroukis T. (2012). Migrant Smuggling: Irregular Migration from Asia and Africa to Europe. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
- United Nations (2000). Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Unodc.org. Available online: https://www.unodc.org/documents/middleeastandnorthafrica/smuggling-migrants/SoM_Protocol_English.pdf [08.07.2024].
- United Nations Support Mission in Libya and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2016). “Detained and Dehumanised”. Report on Human Rights Abuses Against Migrants in Libya, Ohchr.org. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/DetainedAndDehumanised_en.pdf [08.07.2024].
- UNODC Observatory on Smuggling of Migrants (2022). Northwest African (Atlantic) Route: Migrant Smuggling from the Northwest African Coast to the Canary Islands (Spain), Unodc.org. Available online: https://www.unodc.org/res/som/docs/Observatory_StoryMap_3_NorthWestAfrica.pdf [08.07.2024].
- Wahab T.K. (2015). ʻHelping refugees should not be illegal: Correlation between human trafficking/smuggling and asylum seekers.ʼ Journal of Global Legal Research 3(1), pp. 17–25.